Air Force Center for Engineering and the Environment

Resource Library > Technology Transfer > Programs and Initiatives > Source Zone Treatment > Bibliography

Featured Document
AFCEE, 2007. AFCEE Source Zone Initiative (Document) (Appendices)
A fundamental question associated with managing Air Force historical releases of DNAPLs, primarily chlorinated solvents (e.g., TCE, PCE), is: How does DNAPL source depletion and/or source zone containment affect downgradient groundwater quality over time? To address this significant environmental concern, AFCEE/TDV teamed with researchers from Colorado State University and the Colorado School of Mines. The focus of this broad-ranging project to investigate DNAPL source zone fate and transport was to build a set of tools that will assist Air Force remedial project managers and other stakeholders in addressing and successfully meeting this environmental restoration challenge. These tools include a comprehensive description of processes governing DNAPL fate and transport, numerous illustrative laboratory experiments, predictive computer models, and supporting field data. The key finding that arises from this applied research is that DNAPLs entering low-permeability geologic layers can act as long-term sources of chlorinated hydrocarbons via back diffusion in source zones and downgradient plumes. This back-diffusion phenomenon can significantly increase the required complexity of site remediation measures and the time necessary to remediate these DNAPL-contaminated sites. Models developed in this report provide an important resource for helping decision-makers better anticipate the value of potential investments under a variety of site conditions. Based on this project, a protocol for management of sites affected by chlorinated solvent releases is being developed by the Environmental Security Technology and Certification Program (ESTCP).

Bibliography
Literature

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). 2000. Standard Guide for Risk-Based Corrective Action. ASTM Publication E2081-00.
ASTM. 2002. Standard Guide for Risk-Based Corrective Action Applied at Petroleum Release Sites ASTM Publication E1739-95(2002).
Cohen, R.M. and J.W. Mercer. 1993. DNAPL Site Evaluation. CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, Florida.
Freeze, R.A. and D.B. McWhorter. 1997. A framework for assessing risk reduction due to DNAPL mass removal from low permeability soils. Journal of Ground Water 35(1):111-123.
Luckner, L. and W.M. Schestakow. 1991. Migration Processes in the Soil and Groundwater Zone. Lewis Publishers, Inc. Chelsea, Michigan.
National Research Council (NRC). 1994. Alternatives for Ground Water Cleanup. NationalAcademy Press. Washington,D.C.
Newell, C.J., S.D. Acree, R.R. Ross, and S.C. Huling. 1995. Ground Water Issue - Light Nonaqueous Phase Liquids.
Nyer, E.K. and G.J. Skladany. 1989. Relating the physical and chemical properties of petroleum hydrocarbons to soil and aquifer remediation. Ground Water Monitoring Review 9(1):54-60.
Pankow, J.F., and J.A. Cherry (eds.). 1996. Dense Chlorinated Solvents and Other DNAPLs in Groundwater. Waterloo Press, Inc. Portland,Oregon.
Parsons Engineering Science, Inc. (Parsons). 1998. Handbook for Remediation of Petroleum-Contaminated Sites (A Risk-Based Strategy).
Parsons. 2000a. Remediation of Chlorinated Solvent Contamination on Industrial and Airfield Sites. Prepared for AirForce Centerfor Environmental Excellence (AFCEE). Brooks Air Force Base, Texas. Final. June.
Plumb, R.H., Jr., and A.M. Pitchford. 1985. Volatile Organic Scans - Implications for Ground Water Monitoring, in Proceedings of Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Organic Chemicals in Ground Water: Prevention, Detection, and Restoration. National Water Well Association-American Petroleum Institute. Houston, Texas. P. 207-222.
Spitz, K. and J. Moreno. 1996. A Practical Guide to Groundwater and Solute Transport Modeling. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, New York.
US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1989. Considerations in Ground Water Remediation at Superfund Sites. OSWER Directive 9355.4-03. 18 October, 1989.
USEPA. 1991. Revised Priority List of Hazardous Substances. Federal Register, 56(201):521654-52175. October 17, 1991.
USEPA. 1992a. Considerations in Ground-Water Remediation at Superfund Sites and RCRA Facilities - Update. OSWER Directive 9283.1-06. 27 May, 1992.
USEPA. 1992b. Evaluation of Ground-Water Extraction Remedies: Phase II, Volume 1 -- Summary Report. USEPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. OSWER Publication 9355.4-05. February.
USEPA. 1994. DNAPL Site Characterization. USEPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. EPA/540/F-94/049. September. Also available on the World-Wide Web at http://www.epa.gov/oerrpage/superfund/resources/gwdocs/dnapl.pdf
USEPA. 1997. Cleaning Up the Nation's Waste Sites: Market and Technology Trends. USEPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. EPA 542-R-96-005. April. Also available on the World-Wide Web at http://www.epa.gov/swertio1/download/market/market.pdf
USEPA. 1999. Groundwater Cleanup - Overview of Operating Experience at 28 Sites. USEPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. EPA/542/R-99/006. September. Also available on the World-Wide Web at http://www.epa.gov/swertio1/download/remed/ovopex.pdf
Wang, H.F., and M.P. Anderson. 1982. Introduction to Groundwater Modeling - Finite Difference and Finite Element Methods W.H. Freeman and Company, Inc. New York, New York.
Wiedemeier, T.H., C.J. Newell, H.S. Rifai, and J.T. Wilson. 1999a. Natural Attenuation of Fuels and Chlorinated Solvents in the Subsurface. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, New York.

Site Characterization and NAPL Behavior

Cohen, R.M. and J.W. Mercer. 1993. DNAPL Site Evaluation. CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, Florida.
Feenstra, S. 1992. Evaluation of Multi-Component DNAPL Sources by Monitoring of Dissolved-Phase Concentrations, in K.U. Weyer (ed.), Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids. Proceedings of the International Conference on Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids, Calgary, Canada, 18 - 20 April, 1990. A.A. Balkema. Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
Kueper, B.H., J.D. Redman, R.C. Starr, S. Reitsma, and M. Mah. 1993. A field experiment to study the behaviour of tetrachloroethylene below the watertable: Spatial distribution of residual and pooled DNAPL. Journal of Ground Water 31(5):756-766.
Newell, C.J., R.L. Bowers, and H.S. Rifai. 1994. Impact of Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (NAPLs) on Groundwater Remediation, in Proceedings of the American Society of Chemical Engineers (AICHE) Symposium on Multimedia Pollutant Transport Models, Denver, Colorado, August 16, 1994.
O'Reilly, K.T., R.I. Magaw, and W.G. Rixey. 2001. Predicting the Effect of Hydrocarbon and Hydrocarbon-Impacted Soil on Groundwater. American Petroleum Institute Bulletin No. 14. September.
Pankow, J.F. and J.A. Cherry. 1996. Dense Chlorinated Solvents and Other DNAPLs in Groundwater. Waterloo Press, Inc. Portland, Oregon.
Patrick, G.C. and A.S. Burgess. 1992. Field Studies of Nonaqueous Phase Liquids at Two Sites in California's Santa Clara Valley, in K.U. Weyer (ed.), Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids. Proceedings of the International Conference on Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids, Calgary, Canada, 18 - 20 April, 1990. A.A. Balkema. Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
Poulsen, M. and B.H. Kueper. 1992. A field experiment to study the behaviour of tetrachloroethylene in unsaturated porous media. Environmental Science and Technology 26(5):889-895.
Powers, S.E., L.M. Abriola, and W.J. Weber, Jr. 1992. An experimental investigation of NAPL dissolution in saturated subsurface systems: Steady-state mass transfer rates. Water Resources Research 28:2691-2705.
Rossabi, J., B.D. Riha,C.A. Eddy-Dilek, B.B. Looney, and W.K. Hyde. 2003. Recent advances in characterization of vadose zone dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPL) in heterogeneous media. Environmental and Engineering Geoscience 9(1):25-36.
Sitar, N., J.R. Hunt, and J.T. Geller. 1992. Practical Aspects of Multiphase Equilibira in Evaluating the Degree of Contamination, in K.U. Weyer (ed.), Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids. Proceedings of the International Conference on Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids, Calgary, Canada, 18 - 20 April, 1990. A.A. Balkema. Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
Toussaint, B.B., and K. U. Weyer. 1992. Limitations of Sampling Subsurface Contamination by Volatile Hydrocarbons in Unconsolidated, Fractured, and Karstic Rocks: 1. Practical Experiences from 220 Cases, in K.U. Weyer (ed.), Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids. Proceedings of the International Conference on Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids, Calgary, Canada,18 - 20 April, 1990. A.A. Balkema. Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
Toussaint, B.B., and K. U. Weyer. 1992. Limitations of Sampling Subsurface Contamination by Volatile Hydrocarbons in Unconsolidated, Fractured, and Karstic Rocks: 2. Evaluation of Three Case Histories, in K.U. Weyer (ed.), Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids. Proceedings of the International Conference on Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids, Calgary, Canada, 18 - 20 April, 1990. A.A. Balkema. Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
USEPA. 1994. DNAPL Site Characterization. USEPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. EPA/540/F-94/049. September.
USEPA. 1995. Ground Water Issue - Light Nonaqueous Phase Liquids. USEPA Office of Research and Development. EPA/540/S-95/500.
USEPA. 2001. Resources for Strategic Site Investigation and Monitoring. USEPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. EPA 542-F-01-030b. September.

Mobility of NAPL

API. 1999. Free Product Recovery of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Liquids. American Petroleum Institute Publication No. 4682. June.
API. 2001. Methods for Determining Inputs to Environmental Petroleum Hydrocarbon Models . American Petroleum Institute Publication No. 4711. July.
Brost, E.J., and G.E. DeVaull. 2000. Non-Aqueous-Phase Liquid (NAPL) Mobility Limits in Soil. American Petroleum Institute Bulletin No. 9. June.
Johnson, R.L. and B.H. Kueper. 1996. Experimental Studies of the Movement of Chlorinated Solvent Compounds and Other DNAPLs in the Vadose, Capillary, and Groundwater Zone, in J.F. Pankow and J.A. Cherry (eds.), Dense Chlorinated Solvents and Other DNAPLs in Groundwater. Waterloo Press, Inc. Portland, Oregon.
Kueper, B.H. and E.O. Frind. 1996. Numerical Simulation of Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (DNAPL) Migration in Porous Media, in J.F. Pankow and J.A. Cherry (eds.), Dense Chlorinated Solvents and Other DNAPLs in Groundwater. Waterloo Press, Inc. Portland, Oregon.
Kueper, B.H. and D.B. McWhorter. 1996. Physics of Dense, Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (DNAPL) Migration in Fractured Media, in J.F. Pankow and J.A. Cherry (eds.), Dense Chlorinated Solvents and Other DNAPLs in Groundwater. Waterloo Press, Inc. Portland, Oregon.
McWhorter, D.B. and B.H. Kueper. 1996. Mechanics and Mathematics of the Movement of Dense, Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (DNAPLs) in Porous Media, in J.F. Pankow and J.A. Cherry (eds.), Dense Chlorinated Solvents and Other DNAPLs in Groundwater. Waterloo Press, Inc. Portland, Oregon.
Parker, B.L., D.B. McWhorter, and J.A. Cherry. 1997. Diffusive loss of non-aqueous phase organic solvents from idealized fracture networks in geologic media. Journal of Ground Water 35(6):1077-1088.
Pinder, G.F., R.M. Cohen, and J. Feld. 1992. DNAPL Migration from the Love Canal Landfill, Niagara Falls, New York, in K.U. Weyer (ed.), Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids. Proceedings of the International Conference of Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids, Calgary, Canada, 18 - 20 April, 1990. A.A. Balkema. Rotterdam, The Netherlands.

Source Zone Remediation Technologies and Technology Performance

AFCEE. 1995. Test Plan and Technical Protocol for a Field Treatability Test for POL Free Product Recovery - Evaluating the Feasibility of Traditional and Bioslurping Technologies. Prepared for AFCEE, Brooks Air Force Base, Texas. Draft. January.
AFCEE Final Report. 2005. Cost and Performance Analysis for Thermal Enhancements at Selected Sites.
API. 1999. Free-Product Recovery of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Liquids. American Petroleum Institute Publication No. 4682. June.
API. 2002. Evaluating Hydrocarbon Removal from Source Zones and its Effect on Dissolved Plume Lonngevity and Magnitude. American Petroleum Institute Publication No. 4715. September.
ASTM Committee E-50 on Environmental Assessment. 1999. ASTM Standards on Assessment and Rmediation of Petroleum Release Sites. ASTM. West Conshohoken, Pennsylvania.
Cho, H.J., R.J. Fiacco, Jr., R.A. Brown, G. Skladany, and M. Lee. 2002. Evaluation of Technologies for In Situ Remediation of 1,1,1-Trichloroethane, in A.R. Gavaskar and A.S.C. Chen (eds.), Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds - 2002. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, Monterey, California. Battelle Press, Inc. Columbus, Ohio.
Feenstra, S. 2003. Spatial variability of non-aqueous phase liquid chemicals in soil - Implications for source zone mass estimates. Environmental and Engineering Geoscience 9(1):19-23.
Geiger, C.L., C.A. Clausen, D. Reinhart, K. Brooks, C. Claussen, C. Huntley, L. Filipeck, T. Krug, S. O'Hara, D. Majors, and J. Quinn. 2002. Reductive Dehalogenation of DNAPLs Using Emulsified Zero-Valent Iron, in A.R. Gavaskar and A.S.C. Chen (eds.), Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds - 2002. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, Monterey, California. Battelle Press, Inc. Columbus, Ohio.
Hoffman, F., R.G. Blake, R.J. Gelinas, C.D. Noyes, Z. Demir, and P.F. McKereghan. 2003. A conceptual model and remediation strategy for volatile organic compounds in groundwater in unconsolidated sediments: A Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Case Study. Environmental and Engineering Geoscience 9(1):83-94.
ITRC. 2005. Overview of In Situ Bioremediation of Chlorinated Ethene DNAPL Source Zones.
Kampbell, D.H., J.E. Hansen, T.H. Wiedemeier, and B.M. Henry. 2001. Natural Attenuation of Chlorinated Solvents at Multiple Air Force Base Demonstration Sites, in Proceedings of 2001 Conference on Environmental Research. Manhattan, Kansas, May 22-24, 2001.
Kampbell, D.H., J.E. Hansen, T.H. Wiedemeier, and B.M. Henry. 2002. Natural Attenuation of Chlorinated Solvents at Multiple Air Force Base Demonstration Sites in Proceedings of 2001 Conference on Environmental Research. Manhattan, Kansas, May 22 - 24, 2001.
Kittel, J.A., A. Leeson, R.E. Hinchee, R.E. Miller, and P.E. Haas. 2002. Results of a Multi-Site Field Treatability Test for Bioslurping: A Comparison of LNAPL Removal Rates Using Vacuum-Enhanced Recovery (Bioslurping), Passive Skimming, and Pump Drawdown Recovery Techniques, in Proceedings of AFCEE/ERT Technology Transfer Workshop, March 4 - 7, 2002. Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence Technology Transfer Workshop, San Antonio, Texas.
Leeson, A., and R.E. Hinchee. 1997. Soil Bioventing - Principles and Practice. Lewis Publishers, Inc. Boca Raton, Florida.
Marvin, B.K., J. Chambers, A. Leavitt, and C.G. Schreier. 2002. Chemical and Engineering Challenges to In Situ Permanganate Remediation, in A.R. Gavaskar and A.S.C. Chen (eds.), Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds - 2002. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, Monterey, California. Battelle Press, Inc. Columbus, Ohio.
McClellan, R.D. and R.W. Gillham. 1992. Vapour Extraction of Trichloroethylene Under Controlled Conditions at the Borden site, in K.U. Weyer (ed.), Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids. Proceedings of the International Conference on Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids, Calgary, Canada, 18 - 20 April, 1990. A.A. Balkema. Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
Napolitan, M. and F.W. Blickle. 2002. Chemical Oxitaion Treatment of HVOC-Impacted Groundwater Sources, in A.R. Gavaskar and A.S.C. Chen (eds.), Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds - 2002. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, Monterey, California. Battelle Press, Inc. Columbus, Ohio.
Parker, B.L., J.A. Cherry, and T.A. Al. 2002. Passive Permanganate Remediation of a Solvent DNAPL Source Zone, in A.R. Gavaskar and A.S.C. Chen (eds.), Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds - 2002. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, Monterey, California. Battelle Press, Inc. Columbus, Ohio.
Parsons. 1998. Handbook for Remediation of Petroleum-Contaminated Sites (A Risk-Based Strategy). Prepared for AFCEE, Brooks Air Force Base, Texas. Final. April.
Parsons. 2000a. Remediation of Chlorinated Solvent Contamination on Industrial and Airfield Sites. Prepared for Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence (AFCEE), Brooks Air Force Base, Texas. Final. June.
Parsons. 2000b. Source Reduction Effectiveness at Fuel Contaminated Sites - Technical Summary Report. Prepared for AFCEE, Brooks Air Force Base, Texas. Final. February.
Piotrowski, M.R., R. Sturm, and J.E. Cunningham. 2002. Remediation of a Site Impacted with Chlorinated and Petroleum Hydrocarbons, in A.R. Gavaskar and A.S.C. Chen (eds.), Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds - 2002. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, Monterey, California. Battelle Press, Inc. Columbus, Ohio.
Sabatini, D.A. 1996. Surfactant-Enhanced DNAPL Remediation - Surfactant Selection, Hydraulic Efficiency, and Economic Factors. USEPA National Risk Management Research Laboratory. EPA 600/S-96/002.
Schmelling, S.G. 1992. An Overview of Aquifer Remediation: NAPLs, Pump and Treat, and Bioremediation, in K.U. Weyer (ed.), Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids. Proceedings of the International Conference on Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids, Calgary, Canada, 18 - 20 April, 1990. A.A. Balkema. Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
Simpkin T., T.C. Sale, B.H. Kueper, M. Pitts, and K. Wyatt. 1999. Surfactants and Cosolvents for NAPL Remediation: A Technology Practices Manual. Lewis Publishers, Inc. Chelsea, Michigan.
Swingle, T.P., M.A. Orcino, M. Castellanos, J. Whitmer, T.A. Peel, and R. Santos-Ebaugh. 2002. Is Innovation Appropriate? A Case Study of TCE Source Remediation, in A.R. Gavaskar and A.S.C. Chen (eds.), Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds - 2002. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, Monterey, California. Battelle Press, Inc. Columbus, Ohio.
Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission (TNRCC).
Thompson, N.R. and D.J. Flynn. 2000. Soil vacuum extraction of perchloroethylene from the Borden aquifer. Journal of Ground Water 38(3):673-688.
Udell, K.S., and L.D. Stewart. 1992. Combined Steam Injection and Vacuum Extraction for Aquifer Cleanup, in K.U. Weyer (ed.), Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids. Proceedings of the International Conference on Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids, Calgary, Canada, 18 - 20 April, 1990. A.A. Balkema. Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
USEPA. 1994. Evaluation of Technologies for Cleanup of DNAPL-Contaminated Sites. USEPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. EPA 600-R-94-120.
USEPA. 1995. How to Evaluate Alternative Cleanup Technologies for Underground Storage Tank Sites - A Guide for Corrective Action Plan Reviewers. USEPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. EPA 510-B-95-007. May.
USEPA. 1996. How to Effectively Recover Free Product at Leaking Underground Storage Tank Sites - A Guide for State Regulators. USEPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. EPA 510-R-96-001. September.
USEPA. 1999. Bibliography for Innovative Site Cleanup Technologies. USEPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. EPA 542-B-99-004. August.
USEPA. 2000. Proceedings of Abiotic In Situ Technologies for Groundwater Remediation Conference, Dallas, Texas, August 31 - September 2, 1999. USEPA Office of Research and Development. EPA/625/R-99/012. August.
Van Eyk, J. 1997. Petroleum Bioventing: An Introduction. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
Westerby, G. 1992. Remediation of Subsurface Gasoline Losses at Two Retail Outlets in Southern Ontario, in K.U. Weyer (ed.), Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids. Proceedings of the International Conference on Subsurface Contamination by Immiscible Fluids, Calgary, Canada, 18 - 20 April, 1990. A.A. Balkema. Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
Wice, R.B., J.R. Vogeding, G. Walters, and H.D. Ficklen. 2002. Enhanced DNAPL Recovery from Fractured Limestone, AFP4, Fort Worth, Texas, in A.R. Gavaskar and A.S.C. Chen (eds.), Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds - 2002. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, Monterey, California. Battelle Press, Inc. Columbus, Ohio.
Wood, A.L., T.R. Lee, C.G. Enfield, M.C. Brooks, and T.J. McHale. 2002. Field Evaluation of DNAPL Extraction Technologies: Project Overview, in A.R. Gavaskar and A.S.C. Chen (eds.), Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds - 2002. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, Monterey, California. Battelle Press, Inc. Columbus, Ohio.

Considerations in Source-Zone NAPL Removal

AFCEE Final Report. 2005. Cost and Performance Analysis for Thermal Enhancements at Selected Sites.
Battelle Press, Inc. 2001. Proceedings of Air Force Center of Environmental Excellence, Technology Transfer Division (AFCEE/ERT) Source Zone Panel Workshop, 06 June 2001. 6^th International In-Situ and On-Site Bioremedation Symposium. San Diego, California.
Farhat, S.K., C.J. Newell, P.C. de Blanc, and J.R. Gonzales. 2002. Source Attenuation Decision Support System and Database for Estimating Remediation Timeframes, in A.R. Gavaskar and A.S.C. Chen (eds.), Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds - 2002. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, Monterey, California. Battelle Press, Inc. Columbus, Ohio.
Freeze, R.A. and D.B. McWhorter. 1997. A framework for assessing risk reduction due to DNAPL mass removal from low permeability soils. Journal of Ground Water 35(1):111-123.
Huntley, D., and G.D. Beckett. 2002. Persistence of LNAPL sources - Relationship between risk reduction and LNAPL recover. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 59:3-26.
Sale, T.C. 1998. Interphase Mass Transfer from Single Component DNAPLs. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Chemical and Bioresource Engineering, Colorado State University. Fort Collins, Colorado.
Sale, T.C. and D.B. McWhorter. 2001. Steady-state mass transfer from single component DNAPLs in uniform flow fields. Water Resources Research 37(2):393-404.
Sale, T.C. 2002. A Priori Analysis of the Benefits and Cost of DNAPL Depletion, in Proceedings of AFCEE/ERT Technology Transfer Workshop, March 4 - 7, 2002. AirForce Center for Environmental Excellence Technology Transfer Workshop, San Antonio, Texas.
SERDP. 2005. Source Depletion Decision Support System
Stroo, H.F. 2002. DNAPL Characterization and Cleanup, in Proceedings of AFCEE/ERT Technology Transfer Workshop,March 4 - 7, 2002. Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence Technology Transfer Workshop, San Antonio, Texas.
USEPA. 1996. Presumptive Response Strategy and Ex-Situ Treatment Technologies for Contaminated Ground Water at CERCLA Sites, Final Guidance. USEPA Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.OSWER Publication 9283.1-12, EPA/540/R-96/023. October.